In Situ Characterization of Metastable Pb₃O₅ and Pb₂O₃ Phases During Thermal Decomposition of PbO₂ to PbO

Nonstoichiometric lead oxides play a key role in the formation and cycling of the positive electrodes in a lead acid battery. These phases have been linked to the underutilization of the positive active material but also play a key role in the battery’s cycle life, providing interparticle adhesion and the connection to the underlying lead grid. Similar phases have previously been identified by mass loss or color change during thermal annealing of PbO₂ to PbO, suggesting that at least two intermediate PbO_x phases exist. Using multiple, in situ analysis techniques (powder diffraction, X-ray absorption, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) and ex situ nuclear magnetic resonance measurements, the structural conversion and changes in the lead oxidation state were identified during this process. Isolation of the PbO_x phases enabled confirmation of Pb₃O₅ and Pb₂O₃ by diffraction and the first ²⁰⁷Pb NMR measurement of these intermediates. The thermodynamic and kinetic stability of these intermediates and other reported polymorphs were determined by density functional theory, providing key insight into their origins and variation of PbO_x structures found in previous studies.