Hypochlorite Redox Chemistry Enables High-Voltage and High-Power Saltwater Batteries

Saltwater batteries (SWBs) are promising alternatives to lithium-ion batteries for large-scale stationary energy storage. However, the performance of conventional oxygen redox-based saltwater battery systems is often constrained by sluggish oxygen evolution and reduction reactions (OER/ORR) at the cathode, leading to low voltage efficiency and limited power density. Here, OER and ORR are replaced by hypochlorite-based redox reactions through the introduction of sodium hypochlorite into saltwater. Operando pH and dissolved oxygen measurements confirm that OER and ORR are minimized and that hypochlorite redox reactions dominate the cathode behavior. Owing to the higher operating potential and faster reaction kinetics, the hypochlorite-redox-based SWBs delivers a higher discharge voltage of 3.3 V and reduced charge-discharge voltage polarization to 0.66 V. Further improvement is achieved by adjusting the saltwater pH to near-neutral conditions, increasing the discharge voltage to 3.5 V and more than doubling the peak power. The hypochlorite redox environment also exhibits chemical stability with key cell components, including the solid electrolyte and cathode current collectors. Operation of series-connected cells and cells employing hard carbon anodes demonstrates scalability and compatibility with alternative anode materials. These results provide a strong foundation for next-generation SWBs targeting large-scale stationary energy storage applications.