Effect of 316 stainless steel powder processing conditions on microstructure

Matthew deJong; K. P.K. Ajjarapu; Sabrina Calzada; Fred List; Soumya Nag

doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2026.122664

Effect of 316 stainless steel powder processing conditions on microstructure

Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

Abstract

One parameter that has both economic and performance effects in the manufacturing of steel parts is the powder feedstock used. 316 L steel powder can be produced through water atomization or gas atomization, where both the powder size and the atomization process determine the cost of powder feedstock. Gas atomized powder is spherical and has a lower oxygen content than water atomized powder, making it the preferred choice for performance, but comes at a higher financial cost. In this study, various 316 L powder batches are characterized to understand physical properties and microstructural variations. Density and flowability were determined using gas pycnometry and Hall flow tests. Powder morphology and porosity were qualitatively analyzed via optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, Finally, transmission electron microscopy was used to determine changes in phases present. Spherical gas atomized powder of 30–100 μm contained Mn-Si rich oxides both on the surface and within the matrix. Meanwhile, irregular water atomized powder 30 μm in diameter contained silicon oxides without manganese. All powder particles contained a nickel rich cellular structure which was shown to support the formation of additional phases. While literature has observed general microstructural features across 316 L powder particles, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in this study has identified variations in precipitation and cell structures. Information regarding morphology, flowability, density, and phase distributions can be applied to understand variations in part consolidation, which will in turn show which powder aspects are significant for production.

Original language	English
Article number	122664
Journal	Powder Technology
Volume	480
DOIs	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2026.122664
State	Published - Aug 2026

Funding

This work was supported by the Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Technologies Program of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Nuclear Energy . The work was performed in partiality at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Manufacturing Demonstration Facility, an Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy designated user facility. This manuscript has been authored by UT-Battelle, LLC, under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). Notice: This manuscript has been authored by UT-Battelle, LLC, under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with the US Department of Energy (DOE). The US government retains and the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the US government retains a nonexclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, worldwide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this manuscript, or allow others to do so, for US government purposes. DOE will provide public access to these results of federally sponsored research in accordance with the DOE Public Access Plan ( https://www.energy.gov/doe-public-access-plan ).

Keywords

Chemical segregation
Powder atomization
Precipitation
Surface oxidation

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10.1016/j.powtec.2026.122664

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title = "Effect of 316 stainless steel powder processing conditions on microstructure",

abstract = "One parameter that has both economic and performance effects in the manufacturing of steel parts is the powder feedstock used. 316 L steel powder can be produced through water atomization or gas atomization, where both the powder size and the atomization process determine the cost of powder feedstock. Gas atomized powder is spherical and has a lower oxygen content than water atomized powder, making it the preferred choice for performance, but comes at a higher financial cost. In this study, various 316 L powder batches are characterized to understand physical properties and microstructural variations. Density and flowability were determined using gas pycnometry and Hall flow tests. Powder morphology and porosity were qualitatively analyzed via optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, Finally, transmission electron microscopy was used to determine changes in phases present. Spherical gas atomized powder of 30–100 μm contained Mn-Si rich oxides both on the surface and within the matrix. Meanwhile, irregular water atomized powder 30 μm in diameter contained silicon oxides without manganese. All powder particles contained a nickel rich cellular structure which was shown to support the formation of additional phases. While literature has observed general microstructural features across 316 L powder particles, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in this study has identified variations in precipitation and cell structures. Information regarding morphology, flowability, density, and phase distributions can be applied to understand variations in part consolidation, which will in turn show which powder aspects are significant for production.",

keywords = "Chemical segregation, Powder atomization, Precipitation, Surface oxidation",

author = "Matthew deJong and Ajjarapu, \{K. P.K.\} and Sabrina Calzada and Fred List and Soumya Nag",

note = "Publisher Copyright: {\textcopyright} 2026 Elsevier B.V.",

year = "2026",

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doi = "10.1016/j.powtec.2026.122664",

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AU - deJong, Matthew

AU - Ajjarapu, K. P.K.

AU - Calzada, Sabrina

AU - List, Fred

AU - Nag, Soumya

PY - 2026/8

Y1 - 2026/8

N2 - One parameter that has both economic and performance effects in the manufacturing of steel parts is the powder feedstock used. 316 L steel powder can be produced through water atomization or gas atomization, where both the powder size and the atomization process determine the cost of powder feedstock. Gas atomized powder is spherical and has a lower oxygen content than water atomized powder, making it the preferred choice for performance, but comes at a higher financial cost. In this study, various 316 L powder batches are characterized to understand physical properties and microstructural variations. Density and flowability were determined using gas pycnometry and Hall flow tests. Powder morphology and porosity were qualitatively analyzed via optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, Finally, transmission electron microscopy was used to determine changes in phases present. Spherical gas atomized powder of 30–100 μm contained Mn-Si rich oxides both on the surface and within the matrix. Meanwhile, irregular water atomized powder 30 μm in diameter contained silicon oxides without manganese. All powder particles contained a nickel rich cellular structure which was shown to support the formation of additional phases. While literature has observed general microstructural features across 316 L powder particles, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in this study has identified variations in precipitation and cell structures. Information regarding morphology, flowability, density, and phase distributions can be applied to understand variations in part consolidation, which will in turn show which powder aspects are significant for production.

AB - One parameter that has both economic and performance effects in the manufacturing of steel parts is the powder feedstock used. 316 L steel powder can be produced through water atomization or gas atomization, where both the powder size and the atomization process determine the cost of powder feedstock. Gas atomized powder is spherical and has a lower oxygen content than water atomized powder, making it the preferred choice for performance, but comes at a higher financial cost. In this study, various 316 L powder batches are characterized to understand physical properties and microstructural variations. Density and flowability were determined using gas pycnometry and Hall flow tests. Powder morphology and porosity were qualitatively analyzed via optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, Finally, transmission electron microscopy was used to determine changes in phases present. Spherical gas atomized powder of 30–100 μm contained Mn-Si rich oxides both on the surface and within the matrix. Meanwhile, irregular water atomized powder 30 μm in diameter contained silicon oxides without manganese. All powder particles contained a nickel rich cellular structure which was shown to support the formation of additional phases. While literature has observed general microstructural features across 316 L powder particles, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in this study has identified variations in precipitation and cell structures. Information regarding morphology, flowability, density, and phase distributions can be applied to understand variations in part consolidation, which will in turn show which powder aspects are significant for production.

KW - Chemical segregation

KW - Powder atomization

KW - Precipitation

KW - Surface oxidation

UR - https://www.scopus.com/pages/publications/105038163178

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DO - 10.1016/j.powtec.2026.122664

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ER -

Effect of 316 stainless steel powder processing conditions on microstructure

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