Attribution of global monsoon response to the last glacial maximum forcings

Investigation of global monsoon (GM) responses to external forcings is instrumental for understanding its formation mechanism and projected future changes. Coupled climate model experiments are performed to assess how the individual and full Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) forcings change GM precipitation. Under the full LGM forcing, the annual and local summer-mean GM precipitation are reduced by 8.5% and 10.8%, respectively, compared to the results in the preindustrial control run; and the reduction of Northern Hemisphere (NH) summer monsoon (NHSM) precipitation is twice as large as its Southern Hemisphere (SH) counterpart (SHSM). The NH-SH asymmetric response is mainly caused by the monsoon circulation change- induced moisture convergence rather than the reduction of moisture content, but the root cause is the continental ice sheet forcing. The NHSM precipitation changes dramatically differ among various single-forcing experiments, while this is not the case for their SH counterparts. The moisture budget analysis indicates the NHSM is dynamically oriented, but SHSM is thermodynamically oriented. The markedly different NHSM circulation changes are caused by different forcing-induced sea surface temperature (SST) patterns, including the North Atlantic cooling pattern forced by the continental ice sheet, the mega-La Niña-like pattern resulting from the greenhouse gas forcing, and the Indian Ocean dipole-like SST pattern caused by the land-sea configuration forcing. Moreover, the distinctive change of "monsoonality" in the Australian-Indonesian monsoon is predominantly forced by the exposure of the land shelf, which enhances precipitation during early summer (November-December) but weakens it in the rest of the year.